Religion and Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Religion and Science - Essay Example There are have arisen conflicts between the two with one looking at the other to be in the wrong side of belief. To this extent, science identifies itself as the fundamental principle of life while religion also considers the fact of being the fundamental principle of life, which follows by the criticisms of each other that have seen a brewing conflict ensue. In his principles, he also sees science and religion as two worlds that run apart. It is evident by the dominant spheres, which each aims at dominating. Science aims for the physical world while religion aims at the spiritual life. There are issues believed in that science, religion can dialogue and reach a consensus, and discuss at their general points the boundaries established in each. These are all due to their independence and unending conflicts. Explaining the debate on the origin of the earth where science believes to some extent that it might originate as God’s creation while religion supports the origin of it from God. The creations in the world are what create the difference and lead to conflicting. The integration aspect expects that science and religion can reach a general point since they depend on each other. The two aspects of dialogue and integration reflect more on the relationship that science shares with religion. That science provides data and other aspects of helping religion enrich its target population and religion too helps science control conditions and creates a basis for reference. Religion and science are dominantly different and though there are conditions that are putting them together; they have not yet succeeded in exploring the differences between the two. In the past, natural sciences vastly invested into religious meanings that led to many antireligious results that held no religious significance. A difference has existed that has held over time. This difference has seen a shift in boundaries with time. A nineteenth century

Medicine Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medicine - Lab Report Example FEV1 or FEV 1 / EVC % ration between males and females. Heart Rate is defined as the number of heart contractions in 1minute and Stroke Volume is the amount of blood ejected by heart in each beat. Cardiac output in a resting individual of average size is about 5 liters/minute. In an untrained individual heart rate is about 72 beats per minute so stroke volume is about 70 milliliters. 2. OXYGEN CARRYING CAPACITY OF BLOOD: Hemoglobin present in our Red Blood Cells binds the Oxygen present in the blood and forms Oxyhemoglobin during pulmonary circulation. The blood is circulated to different parts of the body including skeletal muscles. 3. SKELETAL MUSCLE MASS: Of the three factors determining maximum oxygen consumption, the most important is the role of skeletal muscle. The larger the mass of exercising skeletal muscle , greater the potential for increasing whole body oxygen consumption. Example: A runner running on a treadmill at a given speed requires certain amount of oxygen. If he increases the speed, the amount of oxygen required would also increase. The runner keeps increasing the speed and hence the corresponding oxygen requirement also increases until a point is reached where he can't increase the speed. The volume of Oxygen used by muscles at that point is optimum which is defined as VO2 Max. GREIWE, J. S., L. A. KAMINSKY, M. H. WHALEY, and G. B. DWYER. ... The volume of Oxygen used by muscles at that point is optimum which is defined as VO2 Max. EXPLAINING VO2 MAX TO A LAYMAN VO2 Max: - V= Volume, O2 =Oxygen & Max= Maximum VO2 Max is calculated in "ml/Kg/min" Example: If my client is 24Year old and his VO2 Max is 24 ml/Kg/m, As for a layman I will explain him that in 1 minute, 1 Kg of his body weight consume a maximum of 24 ml of oxygen to provide energy. COMPARING VO2 MAX RESULTS WITH ASTRAND AND YMCA TESTS GREIWE, J. S., L. A. KAMINSKY, M. H. WHALEY, and G. B. DWYER. Evaluation of the ACSM sub maximal ergo meter test for estimating VO2max. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 27, No. 9, pp. 1315-1320, 1995. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the reliability and validity of maximal oxygen uptake estimates (ESTmax) from the ACSM sub maximal cycle ergo meter test. Subjects included 15 men and 15 women aged 21-54 yr who performed two sub maximal tests and one maximal cycle ergo meter test to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). During the sub maximal tests, heart rates (HR) were recorded from a radio telemetry monitor. ESTmax was predicted for both sub maximal trials by extrapolating HR to an age-predicted maximal HR. Correlation coefficient and standard error of measure (SEmeas) for ESTmax between submaximal trials were r = 0.863 and SEmeas = 0.40 l. min-1, while a t-test revealed no significant difference between trials. Although trial means were not significantly different, la rge variation in individual cases was evident by the high SEmeas (0.40 l.min-1) and by a large SEmeas expressed as a percentage of the mean (13%). The mean of the two ESTmax significantly overestimated measured VO2max with percent error, total error,

Theory of the Prism Spectrometer Experiment

Theory of the Prism Spectrometer Experiment Introduction When a beam of light is transmitted from air to glass, the ray is bent according to Snells law sin0air= nsin0glass Where the angles are measured from the surface normal (the line perpendicular to the surface) and n is the index of refraction of the glass. The index of refraction is a dimension-less number and is a measure of how strongly the medium bends light. The greater n is, the more the light is bent. The index of refraction of air is 1. For glass, n varies from 1.3 to 1.8, depending on the type of glass and on the wavelength of the light. White light is made up of all the colors of the rainbow red, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Different colors correspond to different wavelengths. Human eyes are sensitive to light with wavelengths in the range 390 nm (violet) to 750 nm (red) (1 nm = nanometer = 10-9 m). Range of human vision Glass has a greater index of refraction at shorter wavelengths, that is, it bends blue light more than red light. So a prism can be used to disperse white light into its component colors. Blue red wavelength In this experiment, we will use a prism spectrometer to measure the dispersion angle of various wavelengths. From the measurements, we will make a graph of the index of refraction vs. wavelength. The form of the curve of index of refraction as a function of wavelength, known as the Cauchy formula, is n = A + B/l2 Or n = A + (b/l)2 As a light source, we will use a mercury lamp, which emits light at several discrete wavelengths. The device we are using is called a prism spectrometer because, once the prism is calibrated, it can be used to measure the wavelengths of the lines in the spectra produced by various atoms. The spectra contain bright lines at particular wavelengths, which correspond to light emitted during the transition between different energy states of the atoms. You see distinct lines because the atoms exist only in distinct, quantized energy states. Trying to explain the data from such experiments— the existence and pattern of sharp spectral lines—led to the development of quantum mechanics. When a ray of light is refracted by a prism, the angle between the incoming and outgoing rays is called the angle of deviation (b). For a given prism and a given wavelength, the value of b depends on the angle between the incoming ray and the surface of the prism. b is minimum when the angles of the incoming and outgoing rays make equal angles with the prism surfaces. In this special symmetric case, the prisms index of refraction (n) is related to b and the apex angle of the prism N= The prisms that we will use all have a = 60 ° (exactly, we assume).There exist extensive tables of the line spectra of many elements. In the first part of the experiment, you will be using the known spectrum of mercury to calibrate your prism spectrometer. As a result, you have measured the curve of index of refraction as a function of wavelength. So if you measure a new line of a spectrum, you can calculate the index of refraction and use your curve to look up the wavelength for the new line. This process is used in identifying the elements present in unknown samples, such as the atmospheres of distant stars. The element helium, now used to inflate birthday balloons, was first discovered by observing the atmosphere of a nearby the star, the sun (helios is Greek for sun). In the last part of the experiment you will have the opportunity to measure the spectrum of a gas in this fashion. The fine prism spectrometers used in this lab were purchased in 1970 for $700 each. Today inferior models are available for $1700. Handle them with respect! Never force any parts!à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ OBJECTIVES: Learn the theory of the prism spectrometer, and be able to explain the functions of its various components. Observe the spectrum of a mercury discharge lamp and record the angle of deviation for the spectral lines. Determine the index of refraction of a glass prism for various wavelengths. Use the calibrated prism to measure unknown wavelengths. Observe color sensation caused by light of particular wavelengths. Methodology 1. Become familiar with the spectrometer a) Identify each component: the black table, the prism table, the collimator, and the telescope b) Note the clamping screws and the fine adjustment screws for the telescope and the black table. Note the clamping screw for the prism table. c) Note how to adjust the telescope focus and the eyepiece. d) Note how to adjust the slit focusing in the collimator tube. Note how the slit width can be adjusted and how the slit orientation can be rotated. 2. Practice reading the angle from a precise protractor scale on the rim of the black table. Use the Vernier scale with the little magnifying glass to read the angle to the nearest arc minute. 3. Align the spectrometer In order to correctly measure angles with the spectrometer, we must first align it. To do so, use the following steps: a) Telescope focus: Do not put the prism onto the silver table yet. That will come later. Notice that there are two knobs associated with the telescope. They are located directly under the telescope barrel. One points along the barrel and one is perpendicular to it. The knob that is along the barrel will lock the telescope’s position and will prevent it from rotating. When it is locked down in this way, you can use the other knob for a fine adjustment, to rotate it by very small amounts. If the telescope is not unlocked, turn the knob that is parallel to the barrel counterclockwise until you can freely rotate the telescope. Turn the telescope so that it is not pointing at the collimator but is instead aimed at something as far away from you in the room as possible. Now rotate the focus adjustment (See diagram on page 5) until you can see through the telescope clearly. You may notice that the image is upside down. This is normal. Just ensure that it is as clear and in focus as you can. After this adjustment, you should not adjust the focus of the telescope again. b) Telescope alignment: Now place a white light (desk lamp) in front of the slit on the end of the collimator (in the diagram on page 5, the desk lamp goes where the â€Å"HG lamp† is pictured). Now rotate the telescope until it is pointed at the collimator. You should imagine a straight line going from the lamp through the collimator, and through the telescope. By looking through the telescope, you should be able to line up the crosshair with the slit in the far end of the collimator. By locking down the telescope and using the fine adjustment (the knob perpendicular to the one that you used to lock down the telescope) you should be able to do this very accurately. If you are unable to see the slit, it may be closed too tightly. You can widen and narrow the slit by rotating the adjuster on the collimator (it is located on the far end of the collimator, much like the focus for the telescope). This will adjust the slit width, but will not focus the slit. If the slit does not have very crisp edges when you look through the telescope, move the end of the collimator near the lamp in and out to focus it. If your slit is not vertical in the telescope, you can also rotate it so that it is. Once you have a nice thin, well-focused slit, with your crosshairs centered on it and your telescope locked down, you are now ready to align the scales to read the angle. c) Angle adjustment: If you look below the set of knobs that control the telescope, you will see another pair of knobs that look identical to the ones for the telescope. These knobs perform the same functions (locking down and fine adjustment) for the black table itself. If you unlock the black table, you can rotate it. Notice that there are two windows in which you can read an angle. We want to rotate the table until one of the windows has 0 (zero) lined up with 0 (zero) or 360 (since a circle is 360 degrees, 360 is the same as 180. If at all possible, we should try to use set it so that this window is to the left of the telescope (as we are looking over the barrel toward the lamp) because this will make reading our angle easiest. (Please have a look at the diagram on page 5) On some scopes there is a small magnifier attached to the black table over one window, and this would also be advantageous to use. Once you have aligned them, you will lock down the black table and will not rot ate it again. From now on, we will only rotate the telescope. d) Prism placement: Now you should place the prism in the center of the silver table. Recall that light is bent toward the base of the prism, so it should be placed on the silver table so that the gray plastic part makes a â€Å"C† shape if you were to look at it from the telescope side of the apparatus. Now, without moving the telescope, move your head to the left (about to where the telescope is rotated to in the diagram on page 5) and look into the prism. You will have to put your head down at the height of the telescope/collimator. Now rotate the silver table clockwise until you can see a nice rainbow like spectrum â€Å"inside† the prism. (You should notice that the rainbow is inside of a black circle. You are seeing the light coming out of the collimator and bent through the prism.) If it does not look like a very nice, bright, well-formed rainbow, you probably do not have your head in the right place; move further left and try to rotate the silver table back and forth. Once you have found it, unlock the telescope (not the black table) and rotate it to the left where you were looking. Now look through the telescope, and you should be able to find the rainbow. We are now in about the right place to find our spectrum with the mercury vapor lamp and to adjust for the minimum angle of deviation. e) Minimum angle of deviation: Now, remove the white light and replace it with the mercury vapor lamp. You will want to move the lamp until it is aligned with the slit. To do this, look through the telescope and move the lamp back and forth until it is nice and bright in the telescope. Instead of a complete rainbow, you should now see only certain bands of color. If your bands do not look nice and sharp, you may have to adjust your slit focus or width. Some lines are better seen if you tighten the slit. (The lamp should be very close to the slit.) Move the telescope back and forth until you get the crosshair lined up on the green band. Now look back to the diagram on page 5. We want to make the angle b as small as possible. To do this, rotate the silver table back and forth just a little bit. You should be able to get the green line to move to the right. Now realign the crosshair on the green line and rotate the silver table a little bit again. Then realign the crosshair on the green line. You should repeat this process until no matter which way you rotate the silver table, the green line goes to the left, not the right. When this occurs, and the green line is as far as you can get it to go to the right, you are at the minimum angle of deviation. This angle should be around 51 or 52 degrees for the green line. If it is not, you may not have aligned the scales correctly, please repeat steps c, d, and e from above. (Record it below). Every time that you do a different color, you will have to repeat this process. f) Record the prism number and read the deviation angle on the protractor. Prism # _______ b = _______  ° _______ ’ = ___________ ° 4. Measure the angle of deviation for each of the spectral lines of the Mercury lamp. The wavelengths and colors of the spectral lines are given in the table below. While making measurements, unclamp and rotate the prism table to check that the prism is oriented for minimum angle of deviation for the red, green, and blue lines. When measuring very closely spaced lines, like the double yellow lines, make the slit very narrow and check the focus. When measuring dim lines, make the slit wider.

Mary Renaults The Last of the Wine Essay -- Mary Renault Last Wine Gr

Mary Renault's The Last of the Wine The Last of the Wine, written by Mary Renault and published by Pantheon Books in 1956, is a classical novel that is both historically informative and entertaining. It is a recreation of classical Greece during the Peloponnesian War, when Pericles was the leader of the city of Athens. The story is being told in the first person narrative by Alexas, an Athenian soldier who survives the war. He reflects on his childhood, his experiences as a soldier, and his society's reaction to the ravages of the Peloponnesian war. This was a time when the Spartans had the city of Athens under siege. They burned the surrounding farms, cutting off the food supply of the Athenians who sought refuge inside the city. Alexas recalls the hardships the Athenians faced and their gallant efforts to protect their city from Spartan invasion. The main themes in this book are war, power, heroism, love, loyalty and growth. We are given further insight into the classical Greek society as Alexas reminisces about his family life, his training as an athlete, the Olympic Games, his homosexual relationship with his mentor Lysis, and his encounters with Socrates the Philosopher. The main characters seem dogged by guilt, loneliness or failure, often the failure to love. The book ends on a triumphant note, with the Athenians defeating the Spartans, and liberating their city from the corrupt politicians. Mary Renault is an award-winning novelist who writes imaginative historical fiction. Her literary works center on the social, cultural and political ambiance of pre-classical, classical, and Hellenistic Greece. Renault "is mainly concerned with deepening and reconstructing myths for the purpose of describing contemporary prob... ...leader to create a vision for our youths and our society at large. We are to examine our political institutions to see if they serve the interest of the people. I can vouch for the authenticity of the information in this book. It is historically correct and can be corroborated by the textbook currently being used in my history class. The Last of the Wine makes delightful reading and will appeal to readers of all interests. Written in a style and language that is easily understood and appreciated, it bristles with excitement, adventure and heroic exploits. With all the foregoing in mind, I strongly recommend this book as a literary masterpiece. Works Cited ILandon, C. Burns Jr., "Mary Renault" in Gunton, Sharon R, ed., Contemporanry Literature Criticism. Twaynes Publishers Inc, 1969, 394-397. 2 Renault, Mary. The Last of the Wine Pantheon Rooks, 1956.

Story for English Exam

Young killer The gunshot was still ringing in my ears as I ran to my bedroom. I shut the door and locked myself in; I couldn’t stop the tears from flowing, hitting the polished wooden floor like rain in a storm, more and more I howled. He didn’t deserve it even after everything he did. Darren was dead. Everyone thought Darren was great, he always was a charmer. Every morning he would wake up and bring me breakfast. â€Å"Alright love? † he would say with a wink. I just loved him, he had a great smile with perfect white teeth, and his caramel skin was to die for. Rich, handsome and smart, Darren was my rock my leaning post when times were hard. Everything was perfect, we were perfect, the perfect family, Darren me and the two kids- Danielle and Joshua. All seemed well to everyone, but Darren started to change, he had a problem, a drinking problem. Darren would come home drunk each night looking for a fight, glaring about, he was a lion about to devour his prey. â€Å"Where the hell is that Danielle? † he screamed one day. Danielle walked down the stairs in a timid way, she knew what was coming. Darren was mad because Danielle didn’t finish the washing up. He grabbed her hair and dragged her to the sink screaming the house down with abuse. He kicked her and hit her until he grew tired, I couldn’t bare to watch. Darren was a monster. He repeated his â€Å"game† day after day. I wanted to say something I wanted it all to stop, but I couldn’t I loved Darren far too much, I was scared he would leave me, but enough was enough especially for Danielle. I had only one option I had to run, with the kids. I packed our bags, hastily throwing clothes into suitcases, blue, red, yellow, t-shirts, jumpers flying across the room as I tried to pack as much as possible in that short space of time. I got to Danielle’s t-shirt drawer and started to clear it when†¦ Clunk! A black shiny hand gun, rattled as it hit the floor. I stared at it traumatised, the death tool staring back. Questions were whizzing through my mind, why did Danielle have this? What was it for? Where did she get it from? Danielle was a good girl who wouldn’t even hurt a fly I just couldn’t understand why something so sinister was in her possession. After at least an hour of thinking in shock I decided to stop packing this issue was far more important than running away. I took a pair of Danielle’s green skinny jeans and placed the gun inside I wrapped the rest of the jeans around the gun and popped it back in the corner of Danielle’s drawer, couldn’t take the gun because Darren would find it so I left it there for a couple of days hoping and wishing that I could forget what I saw. Months had passed and Darren was back to his lovely self, he was buying treats for the kids and he hadn’t touched a single alcoholic beverage for at least three months, I was so proud of him. Everything was back to normal and even Danielle seemed back to the happy girl we all knew and loved, she even shared the occasional smile with her dad. All of that was to good to be true, as soon as I started to believe that Darren was a changed man he disappeared for three days, I would go to my bed and shed some tears praying to God that he would return, I would lay there night after night staring into the empty space beside me I knew what I was feeling it had to be loneliness and it was turning my heart cold. I cried myself to sleep a picture of the family tucked under my pillow being my only source of happiness. The next day came in a flash and Darren stormed through the door his eyes red with rage, he pushed passed me before I could say a word and he ran for the kitchen. Nobody knew what was on his mind. Ten minutes later he returned, but with a kitchen knife in his hand me and Danielle trembled in fear. He looked at me with no love in his eyes and grabbed for Danielle I screamed â€Å"NO! † and blood was trickling down fingers as I made feeble attempts to grab the knife. He had Danielle in his grip the knife coming closer and closer to her chest, my best efforts weren’t enough, I jumped up once more and nearly had the knife when. BANG! A metal bullet flew through the air and Darren fell to the ground the bullet sticking deep in his heart.. Me and Danielle turned to see a small sized silhouette holding a gun. The person turned around it was Joshua with a pair of green skinny jeans hanging round his neck. The gunshot was still ringing in my ears as I ran to my bedroom. A fact filling my head, that my son had murdered his father but saved his sister at the same time.

Global Warming: Causes, Consequences, Solutions Essay

Since the early days of the greenhouse debate, scientists have been interested in the impacts of global warming. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has initiated a comprehensive on the impacts of climate change for the country. The public’s increased attention to such problem is not anymore surprising as it threatens every creature with potentially devastating consequences, which has put global warming in the lime light (Silverstein et. al. , 2003p. 5; Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16). Nevertheless, attempts at a monetary quantification of these impacts – despite being classic application of environmental economics – have started to emerge just recently (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16). Many scientists believe that our planet has been experiencing a warming trend over the last 200 years- and that our activities are responsible for this global warming. It started with the industrial revolution, around 1750 (Silverstein et. al. , 2003p. 5; Kursunoglu et. al. , 2001 p. 151). People began to use machines in more and more areas of life and daily functioning, from heating, to building, and manufacturing, to transportation. The machines were powered by burning fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, and natural gas (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16; Silverstein et. al. , 2003p. 5). If these fuels burn, they emit carbon dioxide and other waste products into the atmosphere, which is the layer of air that covers our planet (Silverstein et. al. , 2003p. 5). Fossil fuels provide about 85% of the world’s energy, sustaining the world’s standard-of-living and providing the power for transportation. These fuels are inexpensive, transportable, safe, and relatively abundant. At the same time, their use contributes to problems such as air quality and acid rain that are being addressed through various control efforts and to the problem of global warming, which is now being considered by governments of the world (Kursunoglu et. al. , 2001 p. 151). Scope and Limitation The study involves mainly the issues of global warming in terms of its cause, consequences and solutions implicated. The study shall incorporate various theoretical explanations in order to address the subject criteria of the problem imposed. The scope of the study shall coincide mainly on the environmental issue of global warming. Mainly, the study shall scrutinize the details of the review of related literature patterned to the primary components imposed in the latter of the studies. Analysis and interpretation of data present shall involve clear and accurate depiction of the study utilizing the present and gathered data of the review of literatures. The following shall be the objectives of the study in this research paper: a. To be able to critically analyze the primary components imposed in the study, particularly the presenting phenomenon and the cause-effect relationships of global warming b. To be able to provide necessary data analysis and implication utilizing mainly the references, data gathered in review of literature and the analysis of latter studies proposed in order to provide primary depiction of the actual status of the environment in terms of global warming. Review of Related Literature Global Warming: Overview The basic principle of global warming can be understood by considering the radiation energy from the Sun that warms the Earth’s surface and the thermal radiation from the Earth and the atmosphere that is radiated out to space. On average, these two radiation streams must be balance. If the balance is disturbed, it can be restored by an increase in the Earth’s surface temperature (Houghton, 2004 p. 14). The gases nitrogen and oxygen that make up0 the bulk of the atmosphere neither absorb nor emit thermal radiation. It is the water vapor, carbon dioxide, and some other minor gases present in the atmosphere in much smaller quantities that absorb some of the thermal radiation and causing the difference of 21 degrees Celsius or so between the actual average surface temperatures on the Earth of about 15 degrees Celsius. Such blanketing condition is known as the natural greenhouse effects and the gases are known as greenhouse gases (Houghton, 2004 p. 16). The greenhouse gases are those gases in the atmosphere which, by absorbing thermal radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, have blanketing effect upon it. The most important of the greenhouse gases is water vapor, but its amount in the atmosphere is not changing directly because of human activities. The important greenhouse gases that are directly influenced by human activities are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and ozone (Houghton, 2004 p. 28). Normally, carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere in small amounts-just enough to keep temperatures on Earth at a comfortable range for our planet’s living things. The burning fuels, however, has been increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Houghton, 2004 p. 28; Silverstein et. al. , 2003p. 5). So far, global warming has not been substantial, increasing the average temperature of Earth by only about 0. 6 degrees Celsius in the last century. This change is so small that some scientists argue that it is just a natural fluctuation and not a trend. Other scientists state that there is a great deal of evidence to support global warming: Summers are getting hotter and winters are getting milder, glaciers are melting, and sea levels are rising, but these signs are only the initial phase of global warming phenomena. The warming trend is expected to speed up and produce even greater effects (Silverstein et. al. , 2003 p. 6). Warming did not occur evenly around the world, and some scientists wondered whether the changes in observed temperature might simply be a result of the growth of cities near weather stations. Urban areas form heat islands; pavement and rooftops absorb more heat than soils and plant leaves, so cities have warmer climates than rural areas. Climatologists admit they do not fully understand Earth’s climate system. For decades, however, they have agreed that signs of global warming would be most noticeable in cold regions (Pringle, 2001 p. 17; Silverstein et. al. , 2003 p. 6) – particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, because it holds less heat-absorbing ocean water than the Southern Hemisphere. Scientists have predicted that areas such as Alaska, Canada, and Northern Russia would harm more than Earth as a whole (Pringle, 2001 p. 17). Historical Overview: Development of Agencies and Organizations It has been known for about 175 years that the presence in the atmosphere of â€Å"greenhouse gases† such as carbon dioxide that absorb in the infrared part of the spectrum leads to a warming of the Earth’s surface through the greenhouse effects. The first quantitative calculations were made by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in 1896. In the 1960s, Charles Keeling and his colleagues began a regular series of accurate observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. Such studies showed increasing values as a result of human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels (Hester and Harrison, 2002 p. 1; (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16). By the 1980s, as the rate of increase of carbon dioxide concentration became larger, the possible impact on the global climate became a matter of concern to politicians as well as scientists. The report of a scientific meeting held at Villach, Austria in 1985 under the auspices of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) began to alert governments and the public at large to the potential seriousness of the issue. Estimates were made that the carbon dioxide concentration could double before the end of the 21st century. In 1896, three multinational agencies, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the ICSU, who had co-sponsored the Villach conference, formed the Advisory Group of Greenhouse Gases (AGGG), a small international committee with responsibility for asserting the available scientific information about the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the likely impact (Hester and Harrison, 2002 p. 1). After the assembly of these well-known organizations, and formations of small groups, such as the AGGG, discoveries and widely assessments have been made regarding the issues of global warming. Private and public sectors in the United States and Europe have gathered (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 27), including those from other nations such as Japan, South Korea, etc. , in order assess possible etiologies, evaluate impending causes and provide critical support-based solutions (Hester and Harrison, 2002 p. 1). Measurements of Global Warming Even a few years ago, the acceptance of global warming was not as widespread as it is today. Global warming is difficult to prove as temperature records do no go back very far. Furthermore, the old records are primarily land based, are not representative of large areas of the world, are mostly from urban areas, and are not always collected with precision. Existing records, however, were collated, processed and standardized by P. D Jones and T. M. L Wrigley (1990), and their formulation of standardized data indicates a slow warming trend since the last century with occasional periods of cooling (Hester and Harrison, 2002 p. 1; Gupta, 1998 p. 86). The deviations from the general trend may occur due to three reasons: sunspot cycles; volcanic eruptions producing large quantities of fine ash in the air; the occurrence of El Nino Southern Oscillation. Correcting for all such factors, Jones and Wrigley estimated that the earth has become 0. 5 degrees Kelvin warmer since the 1880s (Gupta, 1998 p. 86). Evidence of global warming also come from other sources. In recent years, glaciers on mountains, particularly tropical mountains, have melted faster than before. The temperature of the top hundred metres of sea water off the coast of California shows an increase of 0. 8 degrees Kelvin over the last forty years. The data from the ice cores of Antarctica also indicate a warming trend (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16; Gupta, 1998 p. 86). These cores through the ice indicate snowfalls of number of years in sequence, which later has turned into ice. As this happens, tiny air bubbles trapped in the ice, and these bubbles can be investigated to determine the composition of the air at the time of the snowfall and also the temperature. The latter is determined by examining the ration of the two oxygen isotopes, 16O and 18O 9 (Fankhauser, 1995 p. 16; Gupta, 1998 p. 86; Houghton, 2004 p. 28). The ratios reflect the ambient global temperature. A number of very hot years, in fact eight of the hottest on record, happened between 1980 and 1992. Apart from indicating the trend, this put global warming in public’s attention. Etiologies of Global Warming Currently, there are three theories about the cause of global warming; however, most of the scientists believe that the cause is an increase of greenhouse gases. Svante Arrhenius of Sweden in 1895 demonstrated the linkage between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and temperature (Gupta,1998 p. 86). Carbon dioxide is the prime etiology involved in global warming causation. In fact, without any carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the earth would be much colder place to live. The global mean temperature would be below 0 degrees Celsius instead of being close to a comfortable 14 degrees Celsius. Most carbon dioxide comes from the decomposition of dead plants and animals, and the respiration of living animals, including humans, and plants. For thousands of years, there has been no problem with this because the oceans absorbed much of this carbon dioxide; hence, taking it out of the atmosphere. In addition, plants carrying on photosynthesis also absorbed a great deal of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (Tomera, 2001 p. 113; Gupta,1998 p. 86). However, with the advent of modernization, auto engines, power plants, industrial mills, and home and business heating systems burn coal, oil, or natural gas (Gupta, 1998 p. 86; Houghton, 2004 p. 28; Tomera, 2001 p. 113). Such accounts for 98% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere, while the other 2% id due to the increased deforestation and mining (Tomera, 2001 p. 113). Another theoretical issue imposed is in the use of fossil fuels and burning materials that release CFCs. The first relatively successful calculation of how much the human use of fossil fuel could warm the planet published in a paper 1896 by Arrhenius. With the conceptual framework of carbon dioxide as the primary source of global warming, various theoretical concepts have formed. In the late 1930s, G. S. Callendar, an English chemist, argued that human activities were causing an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and that this might have already started global warming. Despite Callendar’s concern, and although the scientific community has known about the pot4ential of human-induced warming to raise the earth’s temperature since the early 19th century (Tomera, 2001 p. 113; Brown, 2002 p. 14), global warming received little attention from the scientific community during the first half of the twentieth century, which centered mainly on human causations of carbon dioxide increase (Brown, 2002 p. 14). In 1957, two scientists with the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, Roger Revelle and Hans Suess, found that much of the carbon dioxide emitted to the earth’s atmosphere is not absorbed by the oceans, as some had assumed, leaving significant amounts in the atmosphere that could eventually warm the earth (Brown, 2002 p. 14). With the current advent of environmental discovery and climatic technological advancements, there are now environmental impacts of the chemical substitutes that are now being developed by industry. These factors all into two main groups: hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which have limited ozone depleting potential, and HCFCs, which have no ozone depleting potential. Unfortunately, both groups of chemicals are greenhouse gases, both groups of chemicals are greenhouse gases, not as powerful as the fully halogenated CFCs but nonetheless significant (Marks and Plewig, p. 13). Such causation has been linked to the issue of ozone depletion wherein HCFCs are the prime depletors, and the end outcome contributes to the global warming. Since the stratospheric ozone or ozone layer is almost depleted by stratospheric chlorine, which depends on, for example, CFC emissions. CFCs are greenhouse gases, which account for approximately 25% of the global warming effect. Freon 11 is given a global warming potential of 1, which indicates the characteristics of a major contributor. Because of the dangers proposed by CFC use, there is great commercial interest in replacing such materials with substances, which have less ozone depletion potential (Whelan, 1994p. 73).

The Effects of TiVo On Advertising †Marketing Essay

The Effects of TiVo On Advertising – Marketing Essay Free Online Research Papers The Effects of TiVo On Advertising Marketing Essay Putting â€Å"TiVo† and â€Å"commercial† next to each other may seem paradoxical. TiVo is initially selling its feature of skipping commercials. However, with the launch of TiVo, many advertisers feel threatened for their commercials not being broadcasted to what they had paid for. In order not anger major supporters of TV programs, TiVo has been trying to be commercial-friendly and has eliminated the feature of skipping commercials. In the August issue of Television Week, TiVo recently signs contract with five brands to advertise. The proposed advertising method is a branded tag on TiVo consumers’ screens, and they can find out more information by pressing a button on their remote. This â€Å"branded tag† operates similar to Internet advertising. Consumers are exposed to promotional messages but not forced to watch them. Given its similarity to Internet advertising, advertisers can offer incentives for people to click the branded tags. For example, TiVo could count the number of clicks in a certain designated period. For each click of the tag, advertisers would offer certain amounts of monetary reimbursement to the consumer. Or the reimbursement could be used as credit in paying the monthly TiVo subscription fee. Advertisers could also give exclusive offers to only those who clicked the tag. Money is usually the best incentive to get people to do an act. TiVo now has 3.3 million users. Assume they all clicked the tag for Tylenol once in a month, and each click is worth $0.45. Each month Tylenol would have to send out $1,685,000 of reimbursement, and $20,220,000 for a year. That is only about 2.6% of its total sale of $786.5 million sales in 2004. Assume all TiVo viewers on average $6 on Tylenol products in the month within clicking the tag, Tylenol makes a profit of $5.55 per viewer after issuing the reimbursement. Therefore, Tylenol still makes $18,315,000 for the month. Even though it has to pay consumers to watch its commercial, Tylenol is not losing money. Consumers would be happy to watch commercials knowing that they are being paid to watch. Although consumers are willing to spend over $100 to avoid commercials, they are also willing to spend several seconds to make some money. Offering reimbursement should compensates consumers’ frustration for unable to avoid ads, yet advertisers still get their messages across. After all, Tom Rogers the CEO of TiVo sees TiVo â€Å"as a platform for dealing with, and allowing for the growth of, the advertising business.† Research Papers on The Effects of TiVo On Advertising - Marketing EssayMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaDefinition of Export QuotasThe Project Managment Office SystemTwilight of the UAWAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalPETSTEL analysis of IndiaGenetic Engineering